For almost a century, the prevailing belief has been that the universe was created by a big bang singularity. This scientific impossibility has become a firmly entrenched belief because of (a) an unwarranted preconception; (b) misunderstanding the nature of redshift; (c) miscalculations; and (d) misinterpreting evidence. When these misconceptions are swept away, we are left with the inescapable conclusion that the alleged big bang could never have happened, that there is no point in time at which time began, and that from our perspective the universe has always been here. The universe is a timeless, limitless, endless, infinite expanse. Within this infinite expanse, matter is being created continuously – as evidenced by two galaxies recently discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope that were created hundreds of millions of years after the alleged big bang. Galaxies sit within a cosmic web of gaseous filaments that stretch throughout the universe. These filaments appear to be a creation field wherein particles become hydrogen, then helium, then new stars.
Astrophysics; Cosmology; Astronomy; Universe; Creation; Galaxies; Big bang
That the universe could have begun from any singularity is a concept that defies both logic and physics. Aristotle is reputed to have expressed it this way: “The notion that there could be nothing that preceded something offends reason itself”. The alleged big bang could not possibly have happened [1-4].
Failure of Big Bang Theory
The universe is defined as everything that exists. Big bang theorists argue that the something which allegedly created the universe existed prior to existence – a contradiction in terms [1, 2].
Space is defined as the expanse of the universe beyond Earth’s atmosphere. Space is in the universe; the universe is not in space. Big bang theorists argue that the something which allegedly created the universe was located somewhere before the concept of location (i.e., in space) existed – a second contradiction in terms [1, 2].
Time is defined as the continuous duration of existence as seen as a sequence of events. Without existence and events, the concept of time has no meaning. Time is in the universe; the universe is not in time. There is no point in time at which time began – a third contradiction in terms [1, 2].
Metaphysical Origin of Big Bang Theory
In 1927, astronomer Georges LeMaître presupposed that the universe is expanding and provided mathematics to support his foregone conclusion. In 1931, LeMaître published the English version of his earlier paper entitled, “A homogeneous Universe of constant mass and growing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extragalactic nebulae” [5]. He initially called his theory the “hypothesis of the primeval atom” and described it at the “cosmic Egg exploding at the moment of creation”. In addition to being an astronomer, LeMaître was also a Catholic priest who felt comfortable with the notion that God had created the atom/egg that subsequently blew up to create the universe. Thus, what later became known as big bang theory had its origin in metaphysics rather than in physics [1].
In 1949, astronomer Fred Hoyle coined the term “big bang” on a BBC radio show, intending said term to be contemptuous. Hoyle found the idea that the universe had a beginning to be pseudoscience and remarked, “It’s an irrational process and can’t be described in scientific terms” [6]. In another BBC interview Hoyle said, “The reason why scientists like the ‘big bang’ is because … it is deep within the psyche of most scientists to believe in the first page of Genesis” [7].
Failure of Expansion Theory
Hubble’s law, the theory that galaxies are moving away from Earth at velocities proportional to their distance, is considered to be definitive evidence supporting the hypothesis that the universe may be expanding [8]. However, the false assumptions, faulty reasoning, and contrived data that Edwin Hubble relied upon completely invalidate his so-called “law” [9, 10].
In his 1929 article entitled “A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae”, Edwin Hubble made the a priori assumption that galaxies are moving away from each other, then contrived evidence to support his foregone conclusion [9]. He plotted five points on a graph demonstrating a straight-line relationship between presumed distance and presumed velocity of Virgo, Ursa Major, Corona Borealis, Bootes, and Hydra. However, the presumed distances Hubble used differ drastically from NASA’s measurements. He presumed Virgo to be 3.4 times closer to Earth than it really is, and the other galaxies to be from 12 to 68 times further away than they really are. If Hubble had used realistic estimates of distance, there would be no straight line on his graph, only random points indicating a zero correlation between distance and presumed velocity [9, 10].
In 2014, Eric Lerner and a team of astrophysicists measured the surface brightness (per unit area) of over 1,000 near and far galaxies. If galaxies had been moving away from Earth, they would appear fainter the farther away they get, i.e., their surface brightness would diminish. Lerner’s team, however, found that in every case surface brightness remains constant regardless of distance. If any far distant galaxy had been in motion away from us, its surface brightness would have been much less than that of nearby galaxies, a phenomenon that has never been observed [11, 12]. This is overwhelming evidence that galaxies are not moving apart, that the universe is not expanding.
Cosmic Microwave Background
The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is believed to be the residual effect of an alleged primordial explosion and as such is the only evidence allegedly supporting the big bang hypothesis. CMB radiation can be detected by telescope in every direction as a patchy background, about 13.4 billion light-years away [11]. This observation is mistakenly believed to be thermal radiation left over from recombination, the epoch during which charged electrons and protons supposedly first became bound to form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms shortly after the alleged big bang. The unwarranted assumption is that hydrogen, the lightest element, was made exclusively during the big bang [13, 14]. In truth, ionized hydrogen permeates the entire universe.
From 1989 until 1993, COBE satellite Explorer 66 investigated the cosmic microwave background. Astrophysicists expected to see evidence of directional dependency (anisotropy) that could be traced back to the site of the alleged big bang. That was not what they saw, however. Instead, Explorer 66 measured an isotropic blackbody spectrum with little variation across the sky [15].
The cosmic microwave background spectrum as measured by COBE is the most precisely measured blackbody spectrum in nature. It is impossible to distinguish the observed data from the theoretical curve [16].
NASA thus confirms that the CMB follows the precise curve for blackbody radiation. A blackbody is an opaque object in space that absorbs all radiation of all wavelengths that falls on it. Then, when the blackbody is very hot and at a uniform temperature, it emits its own radiation that is outside the visible spectrum of light. NASA’s measurements indicate that this blackbody curve peaks at 0.3 cm wavelength and 100 GHz frequency, which is at the high end of the microwave spectrum. The blackbodies in question are most probably interstellar dust [14].
An Infinite Universe
The universe is defined as everything which exists. It is not possible for any cause to pre-exist existence. The alleged big bang never happened. There is no point in time at which time began. Time is in the universe; the universe is not in time.
If the universe did not begin at some point in time, then from our perspective it must have always been here. The universe has no beginning and can never have an ending. The universe is infinite [17].
There is no point or locale in space where the universe could have begun. Space exists within the universe; the universe does not exist in space. Space has no shape and no boundaries. Space is an endless expanse within the infinite universe [17].
A Spherical Horizon
The Hubble space telescope creates for us a spherical horizon with a radius of 13.4 billion light-years (Gly). At the perimeter of our horizon is galaxy GN-z11 (distance 13.39 Gly) [18].
Suppose there is an advanced civilization in GN-z11 with technology equivalent to ours. We are at the perimeter of their spherical horizon. If we were to draw a graphical representation of our two horizons connecting, the distance from their furthest edge to our opposite furthest edge would be two diameters or 53.5 Gly.
Suppose there is another advanced civilization at the farthest edge of GN-z11’s horizon. Adding our three connecting horizons gives us an expansive view of three diameters or 80.3 Gly. This process of connecting spherical horizons can go on forever because the universe extends to infinity in every direction [17, 18].
The Fatal Redshift Blunder
As light travels extreme distances through space, its frequency slowly diminishes (attenuates). We observe this phenomenon as a redshift, the tendency of visible light to drop toward the red end of the spectrum. Unfortunately, for over 100 years redshift has been misinterpreted as a Doppler effect. This is the fundamental cosmological error that has created the fatal flaw in these misconceived hypotheses: big bang theory, expansion theory, Hubble’s law, dark matter, and dark energy [19].
In 1915, astronomer Vesto Slipher observed that light from some spiral nebulae is redshifted and falsely presumed he was witnessing a light source rapidly moving away from the observer and somehow stretching the wavelength of light it emits [20]. Slipher did not understand how light attenuates and mistakenly believed he was witnessing a Doppler effect [21].
Redshift and Doppler are two fundamentally different phenomena. In redshift there is an actual increase in wavelength. In Dopper, there is only the illusion of a change in wavelength. Redshift is attenuation whereas Doppler is distortion. To presume they are the same “Doppler-redshift” is rather like referring to a line in geometry as a straight-curve.
Light waves are transverse (i.e., oscillate perpendicular to their path) and do not require any medium through which to travel. Sound waves are longitudinal (i.e., vibrate parallel to their path) and can only propagate by compression and rarefaction of the medium through which they travel (e.g., air, water, solids).
If the source of a sound is moving toward you, identical length waves hit your ear more frequently, distorting the perceived sound to a higher frequency. As a sound source moves away from you, identical length waves hit your ear less frequently, distorting the perceived sound to a lower frequency. This is the Doppler effect.
Over extreme distances, light attenuates according to the following equation: c = ℷf
where c = speed of light; ℷ = wavelength of light; and f = frequency of light wave.
The farther light travels over extreme distances, the greater degree to which its frequency slowly diminishes as its wavelength correspondingly increases. We observe this phenomenon as a redshift, i.e., the tendency of visible light to drop toward the red end of the spectrum [21].
Unless we know the frequency of light emitted at source, there is no way to know by how much it has redshifted by the time it reaches the observer. If we know its frequency at source, then redshift lets us know how far away that source is. There is nothing else that redshift can tell us [19].
For over 100 years, astrophysicists have not paid enough attention to frequency at source. They mistakenly assume that what they are witnessing are galaxies in motion and use redshift to indicate a falsely presumed velocity of motion. The is the logical fallacy of circular reasoning. i.e., including the conclusion in the assumption, then using the assumption to prove the conclusion.
Continuous Creation
Fred Hoyle was convinced that the universe has no beginning and no end, and that the creation of matter was done all the time. In 1993, he developed a cosmological model in which there is continuous creation of matter. This model suggests pockets of creation occurring over time within the universe, sometimes referred to as mini-creation events. Hoyle explained the appearance of new matter by postulating the existence of a creation field [20, 22].
On Dec. 25, 2021, the James Webb Space Telescope was launched for the purpose of viewing the assembly of galaxies in the early universe [23]. This is a misguided mission. There is no early universe. The universe has no beginning. The mythical big bang never happened [1-4].
The Webb Telescope revealed two exceptionally bright galaxies that researchers estimated existed 350 and 450 million years after the alleged big bang that supposedly occurred 13.8 billion years ago. Surely these two galaxies are evidence of continuous creation [24].
The Cosmic Web
The universe is woven into a cosmic web of gaseous filaments resembling tangled spiderwebs. To the human eye, only the galaxies are visible. If, however, one looks through the cosmic web at a brilliant light source in the distance, the source’s light shows a veritable forest of hydrogen absorption lines from all the filaments it intercepts along the way. These gaseous filaments feed galaxies as they grow [25-26].
In 2019, Umehata et al mapped emission from the intergalactic medium in an area around galaxies that are starting to form a cluster. They found that the gas is arranged into filaments, whose position and velocity correlate with star-forming galaxies. Intense star formation and supermassive black hole activity is occurring, with galaxies embedded in these structures. These observations map the gas in filamentary structures of the type thought to fuel the growth of galaxies and black holes in massive protoclusters [27].
Galaxies sit within gaseous filaments that stretch throughout the universe. These filaments appear to be Fred Hoyle’s creation field wherein particles become hydrogen, then helium, then new stars.
That the universe could have begun from any singularity is a notion that defies both logic and physics. The alleged big bang could not possibly have happened. There is no point in time at which time began. The universe has always been here as a timeless, limitless, endless, infinite expanse. Within this infinite expanse, matter is being created continuously – as evidenced by two galaxies recently discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope that were created hundreds of millions of years after the alleged big bang. Galaxies sit within a cosmic web of gaseous filaments that stretch throughout the universe. These filaments appear to be a creation field wherein particles become hydrogen, then helium, then new stars.
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